Swiss Democracy
Possible Solutions to Conflict in Multicultural Societies
Wolf Linder
Professor, Institute for Political Science
University of Bern1994
Contents
Introduction xiv
- Building a Multicultural Society by Political Integration 1
- 1.1 Introduction 1
- 1.2 The origins of modern Switzerland 5
- 1.3 Turning poor odds to good, or factors that made Swiss nation-building a success 8
- 1.3.1 Economy 13
- 1.3.2 Pressure from the outside 13
- 1.3.3 Democracy and social values 15
- 1.3.4 The combining of democracy with federalism 16
- 1.4 Religious and ethnic minorities: from coexistence to pluralism 18
- 1.4.1 Political Catholicism: from segmentation to integration 18
- 1.4.2 Multilingualism: understandings and misunderstandings 22
- 1.4.3 The Jura - the exception to integration 25
- 1.5 The challenges of socioeconomic inequality 27
- 1.5.1 A working class without a homeland 27
- 1.5.2 From class struggle to economic partnership 29
- 1.6 Proportional representation: the universal key to power-sharing 31
- 1.7 The limits of Swiss pluralism - new challenges for integration 33
- 1.8 Conclusion 36
- Federalism 38
- 2.1 Institutions 38
2.1.1 The Swiss interpretation of federalism 38 2.1.2 The division of powers between the federation and the cantons 40 2.1.3 Non-centralisation - not decentralisation 40 2.1.4 Relations between the federation and the cantons 43
- 2.2 Federalist elements in the decision-making process 44
- 2.2.1 A bicameral legislature 44
- 2.2.1.1 Election to the National Council and the Council of States 44
- 2.2.1.2 Bicameral Lawmaking 46
- 2.2.2 The people's and the cantons' vote 48
- 2.2.3 The importance of local government 49
- 2.2.4 Citizens' self-administration 52
- 2.3 Federalism at work 54
- 2.3.1 Cooperative federalism: how federal tasks are implemented by cantons and communes 54
- 2.3.2 How a deadlock over a federal programme allows experiments: the energy-saving policies of the cantons 56
- 2.3.3 How federalism copes with inequalities: the example of Swiss primary schools 60
- 2.3.4 Swiss federalism means regional solidarity, not competition 61
- 2.3.5 Dealing with the separatist issue: the dolorous birth of a new canton 65
- 2.4 The limits of Swiss federalism 68
- 2.4.1 Limits of implementation: why some foreigners can buy real estate in Switzerland and others can not 68
- 2.4.2 The weakness of federal authorities, or how a canton can deny human rights to its citizens 69
- 2.5 Challenges 73
- 2.5.1 Federalism vs democracy: why one citizen from Uri outweighs 34 citizens from Zurich, or to what extent is federalism compatible with democracy? 73
- 2.5.2 Urban regions - the lost dimension in Swiss federalism 77
- 2.5.3 Internationalisation and decentralisation - can they go together? 79
- Direct Democracy and Power-Sharing 84
- 3.1 Introduction: The vote to abolish the Swiss Army 84
- 3.2 Institutions and the historical meaning of direct democracy 85
- 3.2.1 Obligatory and optional referenda 85
- 3.2.2 The popular initiative 87
- 3.2.3 Direct and semidirect democracy: historical meanings and their development 88
- 3.3 Participation in direct democracy 91
- 3.3.1 The deciding majority, or who are the people? 91
- 3.3.2 Regular voters, occasional participants and abstentionists 93
- 3.4 A closer look at the referendum and the initiative 97
- 3.4.1 The issues 97
- 3.4.2 Direct democracy's role in political agenda-setting 97
- 3.4.3 The use of referenda and initiatives 99
- 3.4.4 'Braking' referenda and 'innovating' initiatives - two different devices of direct democracy 100
- 3.4.4.1 The braking effect of the referendum 101
- 3.4.4.2 The innovating effect of the popular initiative 104
- 3.5 Understanding the people's vote 105
- 3.5.1 An example of a vote: should there be tougher restrictions on refugees seeking asylum in Switzerland? 106
- 3.5.2 Shaping opinions in a voting compaign: the actors 108
- 3.5.3 Factors that influence voters' behaviour: knowledge, trust and propaganda 111
- 3.5.4 Can money and propaganda buy votes? 112
- 3.5.5 Models of voter behaviour 114
- 3.5.5.1 The socio-political values approach 114
- 3.5.5.2 The economic model of rational choice 116
- 3.5.5.3 A further reflection 117
- 3.6 Power-sharing by direct democracy, or how the referendum has changed the political system 118
- 3.6.1 The referendum as a power-sharing device 118
- 3.6.1.1 Impacts on the composition of the government 118
- 3.6.1.2 Impacts on the legislative process 119
- 3.6.2 The referendum as an instrument of vested interests 126
- 3.6.2.1 The negotiating actors and their influence 126
- 3.6.2.2 The output of negotiated legislation 128
- 3.7 Conclusions 130
- 3.7.1 Direct democracy - an exceptional system 130
- 3.7.2 Direct democracy - a different political culture 134
- 3.7.3 Direct democracy - between integration and innovation 135
- Comparative Perspectives 138
- 4.1 Direct democracy 138
- 4.1.1 Experiences of direct democracy compared 138
- 4.1.2 The practice of direct democracy in US states and Switzerland: similarities and differences 141
- 4.1.3 The theory of direct democracy: between the ideal and the reality 146
- 4.1.3.1 Enhancing participation 146
- 4.1.3.2 Direct vs representative democracy 147
- 4.1.3.3 'Sensible democracy'- a third model? 148
- 4.1.3.4 Perspectives 152
- 4.2 Federalism 153
- 4.2.1 The essentials of federalist institutions 153
- 4.2.2 Federalism: a structure, a process and a political culture 155
- 4.2.3 Modern meanings of federalism 156
- 4.2.3.1 Cultural autonomy and difference 156
- 4.2.3.2 Federalism and democracy 159
- 4.2.3.3 The territorial state - at once too large and too small 160
- 4.2.3.4 The question of secession 162
- 4.2.4 Non-territorial federalism 164
- 4.3 Power-sharing and consociational democracy 166
- 4.3.1 Majoritarian and consensus democracy: a comparison 166
- 4.3.2 Democratic power-sharing: a key to resolving conflicts in multicultural societies 168
- 4.3.3 The key to successful power-sharing: developing a democracy based on the roots of one's own culture 173
- 4.4 Epilogue: Switzerland's future after the popular vote on the European Economic Area 174
Notes and References 177
Bibliography 190
Index 202