Alcibiades (c. 450-404 B.C.), Athenian general and statesman. He was brought up by his guardian Pericles and became a close friend of Socrates. He participated in the Sicilian expedition of 415-413.

Alexander the Great (356-323 B.C.), son of Philip of Macedon. Educated by Aristotle, he proved himself the greatest military commander of the age, conquering all the known world as far as India in the eleven years between his succession to the throne and his death at 33.

Aranda, Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea Aranda, Count of (1719-1798), Spanish statesman and general. Under Charles III he expelled the Jesuits from Spain and Spanish South America.

Aristides (c. 520-468 B.C.), Athenian statesman and soldier. He opposed Themistocles' naval policy and was ostracized but later recalled to assist in the defense of Athens against the Persians. His death, reputedly in poverty, was popularly believed to confirm his reputation for honesty.

Aristophanes (c. 450-c. 385 B.C.), the greatest and best-known Greek writer of comedies. Eleven of his plays are extant.

Bailey, Samuel (1791-1870), English philosopher and economist.

Benedict XIV (1675-1758), pope (1740-58), reflected the spirit of the Enlightenment in his conduct of church affairs and patronage of art and literature.

Bentham, Jeremy (1748-1832), English philosopher and jurist. A close friend of James Mill, he greatly influenced the philosophical thinking of the younger Mill.

Blackstone, William (1723-1780), jurist and author of the famous Commentaries on the Laws of England (4 vols., 1765-69).

Bright, John (1811-1889), British statesman and reformer.

Buller, Charles (1806-1848), British colonial statesman, collaborator in the preparation of the Durham Report with Edward Gibbon Wakefield.

Caesar, Gaius Julius (c. 100-44 B.C.), Roman general, statesman, dictator, and author, the outstanding figure in Roman history not only for the diversity of his genius but especially for his role in the transition from the republican to the imperial regime inaugurated by his heir Augustus.

Capet, Hugh (c. 940-996), became king of France in 987, thus founding the Capetian dynasty which survived, in its collateral lines, to the 19th century.

Catherine II (1729-1796), the Great, Empress of Russia (1762-96). She affected the spirit of the Enlightenment, gained large territories by conquest, but did nothing to alleviate the increasing misery of her subjects.

Charlemagne (c. 742-814), king of the Franks (768-814) and Emperor of the West (800-814). He was a wise ruler who expertly organized and administered his vast empire, founded schools, and furthered Christianity.

Chatham: see Pitt.

Clement XIV (1705-1774), pope (1769-74) who in 1773 suppressed the Jesuit order to pacify the Catholic rulers of Europe.

Cleon (d. 422 B.C.), Athenian statesman and general, successor of Pericles as leader of the popular party.

Clive, Robert, Baron Clive of Plassey (1725-1774), British general and statesman, founder of the empire of British India.

Colbert, Jean Baptiste (1619-1683), French statesman who brought order into the chaotic financial administration of France. Most notable were his improvements in industry and commerce. He was the most important representative of French mercantilism, also known as Colbertism.

Coleridge, Samuel Taylor (1772-1834), English poet, critic, and philosopher. He was an intimate friend of William Wordsworth.

Demosthenes (384-322 B.C.), the greatest orator of ancient Athens. He roused the Athenians to the danger of Philip of Macedon and devoted most of his life to fighting the Macedonians in his orations. After the defeat of the Greek army by Antipater he poisoned himself in order to avoid capture.

Disraeli, Benjamin, Earl of Beaconsfield (1804-1881), British prime minister under Queen Victoria whose special confidence he enjoyed. Under his leadership the Tory party championed a program of domestic reform and imperial expansion.

Durham, John George Lambton, Earl of (1792-1840), English statesman and special commissioner in Canada. He wrote his "Report on the Affairs of British North America" to justify his much-criticized colonial policy.

Edward II (1284-1327), king of England (1307-27). Defeated in Scotland and dominated by his powerful barons, Edward was finally imprisoned, forced to abdicate, and murdered.

Elizabeth I (1533-1603), queen of England (1558-1603). Though religious controversy and the question of her legitimacy at first endangered her throne, she succeeded in establishing her authority firmly. Her reign saw a brilliant flowering of English civilization.

Frederick II (1712-1786), the Great, king of Prussia (1740-86). The greatest soldier of his age, he was also the leading representative of "enlightened despotism." Military requirements compelled him to impose a relatively efficient, highly centralized, and thoroughly honest administration on his kingdom.

Ganganelli: see Clement XIV.

Gustavus II (Gustavus Adolphus, 1594-1632), king of Sweden (1611-32). A great soldier, he carried Swedish power into the heart of Europe, championing the Protestant cause in the Thirty Years' War. He was killed at the battle of Lützen.

Henry III (1207-1272), king of England (1216-72). Various factions during his reign strove for control of the kingdom. In 1258 the barons made him accept the Provisions of Oxford, a number of reforms which curtailed the king's power.

Henry IV (1553-1610), king of France (1589-1610), first of the Bourbon line. Brought up as a Protestant, he became a Catholic in 1593 to secure his throne. By the Edict of Nantes (1598) he granted partial religious toleration to Protestants. He was assassinated by a religious fanatic.

Hill, Sir Rowland (1795-1879), English administrator and educationist, reformer of the postal system.

Hyperbolus (d. 411 B.C.), Athenian demagogue who became the leader of the war party after the death of Cleon. He was ostracized in 417 and later murdered.

Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), third president of the United States (1801-09) and the leading interpreter of the democratic and humanitarian ideals of the new republic.

John (1167?-1216), king of England (1199-1216) whose reign was beset by three struggles: with Philip Augustus of France, which resulted in John's defeat and the French conquest of Normandy; with Pope Innocent III, from which he emerged as the Pope's vassal; and with his barons, which ended in John's signing of Magna Carta in 1215.

Joseph II (1741-1790), Holy Roman Emperor (1765-90), coregent with his mother, Maria Theresa (1765-80), and ruler of the Hapsburg dominions (1780-90). One of the "enlightened despots," he published an edict of religious toleration (1781, and restricted the rule of the Catholic Church.

Leopold II (1747-1792), Grand Duke of Tuscany (1765-1790), ruler of the Hapsburg dominions and Holy Roman Emperor (1790-92). His administration of Tuscany placed him among the enlightened reformers of the century; he was less successful as emperor, in which office he succeeded his brother, Joseph II.

Louis XIV (1638-1715), king of France (1643-1715), built up a thoroughly personal and absolute system of government. In 1685 he revoked the Edict of Nantes which led to the emigration of French Protestants. Under his reign French court life reached an unsurpassed splendor and became the model for all the courts of Europe.

Luther, Martin (1483-1546), German religious reformer. An Augustinian monk, his posting of the famous 95 theses on the cathedral door in Wittenberg in 1517 marked the beginning of the Protestant Reformation.

Nicias (c. 470-413 B.C.), Athenian politician and general, political opponent of Cleon and Alcibiades. A leader of the Sicilian expedition of 415-413, he was captured by the Syracusans and executed.

Peel, Sir Robert (1788-1850), British prime minister (1834-35, 1841-46) who achieved notable reforms, particularly in the areas of civil liberty, financial administration, and regulation of foreign commerce.

Pericles (c. 495-429 B.C.), leading Athenian statesman in the years of Athens' greatest preeminence as a center of culture and a military power.

Peter I (1672-1725), the Great, Tsar of Russia (1682-1725) noted for his strenuous efforts to westernize his backward country.

Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham (1708-1778), "the Elder," British prime minister during the Seven Years War in which Britain wrested much of her colonial empire from France.

Pitt, William (1759-1806), "the Younger," British prime minister at 25, became Napoleon's most resolute enemy, organizing and supporting with subsidies three European coalitions against France.

Pittacus (c. 650-570 B.C.) of Mytilene in Lesbos, statesman and sage. He instituted important popular social reforms.

Pombal, Sebastiao Jose de Carvalho, e Mello, Marquess of (1699-1782), Portuguese statesman whose conduct of the country's economic and imperial affairs was typical of the statecraft of the Enlightenment.

Remusat, Charles FRANgois Marie, Comte de (1797-1875), French politician and writer.

Richelieu, Armand Jean du Ples-sis, Due de (1585-1642), French statesman and cardinal. Chief minister to Louis XIII, he firmly established the royal power over feudal and religious factions. In the Thirty Years' War he fought with the Protestant powers against France's inveterate enemy, the Hapsburgs.

Roebuck, John Arthur (1801-1879), British politician.

Russell, John, 1st Earl Russell (1792-1878), British statesman, prime minister 1846-52.

Saint-Simon, Claude Henri de Rouvroy, Comte de (1760-1825), French social philosopher. He envisioned a hierarchical industrial state in which every man was placed and rewarded according to his productivity.

Solon (c. 640-560 B.C.), Athenian statesman. He accomplished important social and legal reforms. His exemplary statesmanship has made the name of Solon a synonym for lawgiver.

Sully, Maximilien de Bethune, Due de (1560-1641), French statesman, finance minister under Henry IV, who replenished the treasury after many years of civil war and promoted commerce and agriculture.

Themistocles (c. 528-c. 462 B.C.), Athenian statesman and general. He persuaded the Athenians to build a powerful fleet which he commanded in the victory over the Persians at Salamis (480 B.C.).

Theramenes (b. c. 455 B.C.), Athenian statesman and general.

Tocqueville, Alexis de (1805-1859), French writer and statesman, author of La Democratie en Amerique (2 vols., 1835, 1840), one of the most penetrating studies of the American political system by a foreign writer.

Vauban, Sebastien Le Prestre, Marquis de (1633-1707), French military engineer noted for his system of fortifications.

Wakefield, Edward Gibbon (1796-1862), British colonial statesman, coauthor, with Charles Buller, of the Durham Report.

Washington, George (1732-1799), first president of the United States (1789-97).

Wellesley, Arthur, 1st Duke of Wellington (1769-1852), British general who, together with the Prussian army under General Blücher, defeated Napoleon in the Waterloo campaign (1815).

William I (1533-1584), "the Silent," Prince of Orange, led the Dutch rebellion against Spain and became first stadholder of the new republic.

William III (1650-1702), Prince of Orange and joint British sovereign with Mary II (1689-1702), who led the European coalition against Louis XIV.