Logic

W. E. Johnson, Logic: Part III (1924)

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

§ 1. Review of the lines of discussion occupying Parts I and II. Pre-mathematical Logic
§ 2. Summary of the author's treatment of Mathematical Logic
§ 3. The ontological topics introduced in Part III: comparison with the treatment accorded to these topics by other logicians. The place of postulates in inductive theory
§ 4. The division of existents into continuants and occurrents
§ 5. The dualistic view. Meanings of 'of'
§ 6. Examination of the distinction between occurrent and event: the former being identified and discriminated by reference to difference of adjectival determinable, the latter by reference to difference of location
§ 7. Agent and Patient. Immanent and Transeunt. Monadism and Monism
§ 8. Combination of Immanent with Transeunt Causation
§ 9. Interaction between 'mind' and 'body.' Parallelism and Correspondence. Parallelism and denial of Causality. Psychical and Physical processes presented in cycles
§ 10. One-sided correspondence. Impartial Dualism
§ 11. Attempt to meet attacks upon Impartial Dualism
§ 12. Invariability and Causality
§ 13. Misrepresentations of the deterministic position
§ 14. Explanation of the necessity for introducing the discussions of psychological and metaphysical topics into Logic

CHAPTER I
FACT AND LAW

§ 1. Statements of fact
§ 2. Reduction of statements of fact to the form : A certain P is p
§ 3. Verbal expression for the distinction between the universal of fact and the universal of law
§ 4. Resume of uses of the term 'possible'
§ 5. Inadequacy of the purely factual interpretation of certain types of proposition sect; 6. The 'possible' and the 'hypothetically necessary'

CHAPTER II
THE CRITERIA OF PROBLEMATIC INDUCTION

§ 1. Instantial propositions as premisses of induction
§ 2. The 'course' of nature and the 'laws' of nature
§ 3. Complementary enumeratives and Complementary universals
§ 4. Requirement of maximum variety amongst examined instances
§ 5. Combination of variety and similarity
§ 6. Number and proximity as substitutes for variety and similarity
§ 7. Independence of characters and inqongruence of instances
§ 8. First formulation of the criterion for the Method of Complementaries
§ 9. Criterion of precision
§ 10. Complex comprehensive exactitude
§ 11. Tabular schematisation corresponding to Bacon and Mill's empirical generalisation
§ 12. Discussion of the relation between 'hypothesis' and 'generalisation'
§ 13. The degree of probability varies directly with the degree of ascertained accordance

CHAPTER III
DEPENDENCY AND INDEPENDENCY

§ 1. Separation in thought between the determining and the determined characters -- these being presented as merely conjoined in fact
§ 2. In experimentation the determining factors are known before and the dependent factors only after the result of the experiment
§ 3. Errors in observation (unaided by experiment) resulting from the false supposition that certain factors are independent which are in reality dependent

CHAPTER IV
EDUCTION

§ I. Inference (so-called) from particulars to particulars should be termed eduction
§ 2. Eduction involves a minor, middle and major premiss containing not only a minor and a major term but also two middle terms respectively intensional and extensional. Schematisations of eduction
§ 3. The commonly alleged distinction between induction and analogy should be replaced by the distinction between the two mediating terms respectively extensional and intensional required for eduction and for generalisation. Cases tabulated where all the evidential data are in favour of a certain educed conclusion
§ 4. In estimating the evidential force of instantial data, characters must be counted only so far as they constitute an independency, and instances only so far as they constitute a variancy
§ 5. Further explication of the above principle
§ 6. Further exposition of the principle as regards evidential premisses without respect to inferred conclusion
§ 7. The nature of the inferred conclusion in its relation to the evidential premisses
§ 8. Irreducible contrast between 'subject' and 'predicate'
§ 9. The above contrast as corresponding to the fundamental distinction between separation and discrimination

CHAPTER V
PLURALITY OF CAUSES AND OF EFFECTS

§ 1. Incomplete assignment of Cause yields alternative Effects just as incomplete assignment of Effect yields alternative Causes
§ 2. An assignment of Cause or of Effect is complete only in reference to the Effect or to the Cause
§ 3. A conjunction of cause-factors constitutes a completed cause; a conjunction of effect-factors constitutes a completed effect
§ 4. Plurality means that some but not all of the possible values of a determinable may be put into the subject-terms of the universals in which the same determinate character is predicated
§ 5. Correction of the demonstrative figures of induction required by the consideration of a possible plurality of causes or of effects
§ 6. Reversibility of the universal proposition connecting the completed cause and the completed effect
§ 7. The step-by-step process by which the completed cause and the completed effect are reached

CHAPTER VI
CAUSE-FACTORS

§ 1. Preliminary exposition of the notion of change in its reference to a Continuant
§ 2. Continuant as Cause must be distinguished from Occurrent as Cause. Cause and Effect are coordinate when interpreted as Events and each is reciprocally inferable from the other. Nevertheless the temporal relation is regarded as not reciprocal
§ 3. Alleged distinction between two types of objective law
§ 4. The properties of continuants regarded as causal
§ 5. Effects -- like causes -- not merely resolvable into events or occurrences
§ 6. Temporal sequence of cause-occurrence and effect-occurrence explained in reply to philosophical criticism

CHAPTER VII
THE CONTINUANT

§ I. The fundamental notion of causal connection between movements that occur in space entails reference to a physical continuant conceived as that which moves
§ 2. The term 'continuant' is chosen to replace 'substance' in order to free the notion from certain philosophical implications inseparable from the latter, and to emphasize the inevitable residuum which (as maintained by the writer) is indispensable for science. Thus, in the first place, the extension of continuance to an infinite future and an infinite past which is often attributed by philosophers to substance may be dispensed with in the scientifically conceived continuant
§ 3. Secondly, substantival continuance does not necessarily entail any adjectival changelessness
§ 4. Thirdly, the ultimate substantival continuant is not necessarily simple. Moreover, the existential components which mayconstitute a continuant-unity may not themselves be continuant
§ 5. What in general holds of the physical continuant holds also of the psychical continuant; but the structure of the latter exhibits far higher complexity than the former. For, whereas motion is the sole fundamental mode of manifestation of the physical continuant, there are many irreducible but interconnected modes of manifestation to be attributed to the psychical continuant. Within each of these several modes the conception of change must be separately applied
§ 6. The conception of change, moreover, involves the replacement of one by another manifestation, of which different determinate characters under the same determinable may be predicated
§ 7. The mutually implied conceptions of substance and causality (in their residual scientific significance) lead to the notion of property, which is the appropriate adjective characterising a continuant as contrasted with an occurrent. A property must be conceived as a defined potentiality: other adjectives are conceived as descriptive of actualities
§ 8. The comparatively primitive attempts to systematise the manifold of reality illustrate the same principles and postulates which govern the procedure of advancing science
§ 9. Sub-continuants and sub-occupants
§ 10. Causality within the manifestations of a single continuant
§ 11, Uniformities embracing different continuants
§ 12. The unity of a continuant exhibited in causal formulae. Alterable and unalterable properties
§ 13. Comparison of the views here maintained with those of Kant
§ 14. Fundamental contrast between the author's views and those widely current since Hume and at the present day

CHAPTER VIII
APPLICATION OF CAUSAL NOTIONS TO MIND

§ I. The effect of purposive control in modifying the more mechanical mental processes points to a form of causality -- operating within the experience of a single individual -- which is closely analogous to the form of causality termed transeunt
§ 2. If there is any direct determining influence of the psychical upon the physiological or conversely, such influence undoubtedly comes under the head of transeunt causality. If, for example, we assume that sensations and other quasi-mechanical mental processes are directly determined by neural processes, there will be a direct correlation between such mental processes on the one hand and the neural processes on the other. If, further, we assume that the phases of feeling and cognition are partially determined by sensations, then there will be a partial -- but indirect -- correlation between the former and the latter. But such correlation must be limited to those variations which can be said to correspond with one another. And it would appear that there are no variations in neural process which could correspond to the variations of feeling and cognition
§ 3. Any felt effort or strain that may be incurred by mental activity has both a physiological and a sensational aspect which can properly be said to correspond. But so far as the effects of such effort are intended, we have reasonable ground for asserting the operation of transeunt causality, in which the causal agency is psychical and the direct effect physiological
§ 4. The presumption that foreknowledge operates in the psychical determination of physical effects, is tantamount to attributing real causal efficiency to such foreknowledge. But if this foreknowledge could be reduced to merely physiological terms, mental causality would be an illusion
§ 5. Mental activity assumes two distinct types. (1) Motor activity which produces sensational effects, and (2) The activity of attention which produces cognitional effects. In both cases, grounds are put forward for maintaining that the causal agency entailed is purely psychical
§ 6. Explicit grounds for the contention that changes of cognitive phase have no counterparts in the changes of neural process
§ 7. The prevalent confusion between images and ideas largely accounts for the refusal by physiologists and psychologists to accept the above view
§ 8. An analysis of the phases of consciousness accompanying reflex processes best illustrates the contrast between physiological and psychical causal agency
§ 9. But an analysis of conative conflict yields the most important indication that psychical agency is really causally operative
§ 10. The cognitive aspects of deliberative process complete the grounds for our main contention
§ 11. 'Judgments of value' stand to 'conations' as cause to effect, not conversely

CHAPTER IX
TRANSEUNT AND IMMANENT CAUSALITY

§ 1. The event termed 'Movement' cannot be reduced to merely spatio-temporal terms; since it requires something that moves, and that retains its continued identity within the spatio-temporal bounds of the event
§ 2. The causality formulated in the first law of motion is wholly immanent, but that formulated in other dynamic laws is essentially transeunt
§ 3. Analysis of the immanent and transeunt factors entering into an elementary physical process
§ 4. Contrast to the previous illustration, where cause and effect are reversed. In cases of immanent process, where a cause-occurrent and an effect-occurrent are simultaneous, our ground for deciding which of the two occurrents is cause and which is effect is based upon the principle that that occurrent which is effect in the transeunt process is cause in the immanent process
§ 5. In the analysis of emotional experiences, which entail diffused organic sensations, another illustration is afforded of the ways in which transeunt and immanent causality are distinguished and combined
§ 6. Fundamental distinctions between the psychical and the physical continuant
§ 7. The finally unique distinction between the two
§ 8. Formulae which are correctly expressed in terms of immanent causality as regards unitary wholes are frequently equally correctly and more adequately expressed in terms also of transeunt causality as regards constituent parts

CHAPTER X
CONVERGENT AND DIVERGENT CAUSALITY

§ 1. Diagrammatic representation, by the use of parallel, converging and diverging lines, to explain the different forms assumed in causal complexes, -- parallel lines being employed to represent causal independence
§ 2. Application of above to dynamic and chemical formulae
§ 3. Further application to psycho-physical formulae
§ 4. Extension of the diagrams to illustrate the more complicated formulae in physics.
§ 5. Similar exposition of the more complicated forms of psycho-physical causality

CHAPTER XI
TEMPORAL AND SPATIAL RELATIONS INVOLVED IN CAUSALITY

§ 1.The conception of connectional determination as involving spatio-temporal relations
§ 2. Order: discrete and continuous
§ 3. The possibility of discontinuous change
§ 4. The idea of connectional determination extended to interpsychical causality
§ 5. Analogies between the spatially inner and outer on the one hand and the temporally prior and posterior on the other
§ 6. Explanation of 'potential' causality
§ 7. Examination of certain elementary physical processes

APPENDIX
ON EDUCTION

§ 1. Notation to be adopted. Two elementary formulae .
§ 2. The notion of probability. Proposal and supposal. Contrast with relation of implication
§ 3. The two working axioms of the probability-calculus
§ 4. Four corollaries from the two axioms
§ 5. Necessity for special postulates before the theorems of the calculus can be applied to any actually given problem
§ 6. Two postulates are adopted in the proposed establishment of a theory of eduction
§ 7. Formal proof of the eductive theorem
§ 8. Elucidation of the formula for successive values of N. Mnemonic schematisation
§ 9. Discussion of the grounds on which the adoption of the two postulates is based and of the type of case for which the postulates are legitimate

INDEX